Respectful and Effective Dialogue
With Other Christians on Five Critical
Points of Bible Eschatology
by Mark Mountjoy
Scripture text: Young men likewise exhort to be sober minded. In all things shewing thyself a pattern of good works: in doctrine shewing uncorruptness, gravity, sincerity, Sound speech, that cannot be condemned; that he that is of the contrary part may be ashamed, having no evil thing to say of you. (Titus 2:6-8)
When it comes to unity in Christian beliefs, the Church surprisingly agrees on many important issues. These include the belief in the Trinitarian nature of God, the virgin birth of Jesus, and the historicity of His death, burial, resurrection, and ascension. There is also a consensus on the acceptance of a common collection of twenty-seven New Testament scriptures and the understanding that Jesus of Nazareth is the one and only Savior for all people. However, in almost all cases, Christian churches align their ideological loyalties around the conflicting teachings of one of the Four Views of Bible prophecy: Amillennialism, Postmillennialism, Historicism, and Premillennialism. Consequently, they strongly disagree and vehemently object to or deny the specific teachings and expectations about future events that are regularly described and emphasized in the New Testament.
In this concise essay, we aim to highlight five essential aspects and important circumstantial considerations derived from Scripture regarding this subject. When these aspects are missing, it allows Christians to minimize, overlook, or misunderstand important contemporary and impending events mentioned in the New Testament. This can have disastrous consequences for their attitudes, understanding, and willingness to adhere to proper doctrine as the earliest Christians understood, believed, and taught it. Almost everyone takes for granted that when discussing Bible prophecy, whether in general or specifically referring to the book of Revelation, there will be a lack of consensus or agreement. This systemic reality is generally not viewed as a problem but is accepted tacitly as a worldview and interpretive foible that will likely persist because of people's inherent decisions about what any number of chapters or verses may or may not mean.
In fact, the Four Views veer completely away from and vary greatly and contradict what John the Baptist, Jesus, the Apostles, and their followers said about the end times at a fundamental level. It should not be surprising, therefore, that there is no agreement when the core teachings of the New Testament appear to be unknown, disregarded, or dismissed. In this essay, we will briefly describe the four views and suggest five specific ways information in the New Testament cuts across them and transcends that. We will also discuss how, once they are recognized, Christians can engage in prayerful, respectful, and dignified dialogue about these sensitive but important issues.
The purpose of these discussions is not to reach unanimous agreement on every detail but rather to focus on the main points and major themes while avoiding unnecessary conflicts over minor disagreements. Our objective is not to prove that one Christian or church is superior to others, nor is it about determining which viewpoint is better or worse. Instead, our goal is to let the foundational principles of the New Testament shine, direct, and guide interactions between Christians who deeply respect each other as individuals, recognizing each other's inherent dignity as Christians and their status as beneficiaries of the grace and mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ. We aim to consistently make progress in studying and understanding these ideas, doctrines, and concepts with humility. We seek to integrate them into all levels of New Testament education, personal Bible studies, Sunday schools, and advanced academic research in higher learning institutions
The Four Views of Bible Prophecy
What are the Four Views of Bible prophecy? They are Amillennialism, Postmillennialism, Historicism, and Premillennialism. Christians endured persecution by the ancient State of Judæa for one hundred years until A.D. 136 and for 194 years until the establishment of Constantinople by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great. During this time, they had limited resources and time to reflect on their apocalyptic situation in a meaningful academic manner. Only after the relocation of the Roman Empire's capital from Rome to Constantinople did significant intellectual attention begin to be given to the subject.1 This placed increasing pressure on contemporary Church officials in the fourth and fifth centuries, who struggled to comprehend the prima facie representations of the Book of Revelation. They did not realize that Revelation systematically depicts Christ's punishment of the Second Jewish Commonwealth from the pre-war years from 21 Iyar/8 May A.D. 63 to its termination in the failure of the Bar Kokhba state by 30 Shebet/20 February A.D. 136. Amillennialism, therefore, became the initial successful approach that provided the Church with a common language to address the concept of Jesus' return. However, it erroneously endorsed the belief in Christ's coming at the end of time itself, rather than the end of the Second Temple, Jerusalem, and the Hebrew State. Thus, according to the New Testament self-representations, this mishap authored by St. Augustine was a significant error and formed the basis for the subsequent development of the other three views.
Amillennialism
Amillennialism is a symbolic eschatological view in Christianity. According to this view, there will be no thousand-year reign of the righteous on Earth, as mentioned in Revelation 20. This viewpoint differs from both Postmillennial and Premillennial interpretations of prophetic and eschatological passages in the Bible. Revelation 20:1-6 describes a vision in which Satan is bound for a thousand years, during which the souls of those who were martyred for Jesus' testimony and those who did not worship the beast or its image come to life and rule with Christ. Amillennialists interpret the "thousand years" symbolically, to either mean a temporary bliss of souls in heaven before the general resurrection or infinite bliss of the righteous in the eternal state, after the general resurrection. Amillennialism expects the Second Coming to occur at the end of time.2
Historicism
Historicism is a third method of interpreting continuous salvation history within a Bible eschatology framework. This approach links symbols found in the prophecies to historical events, persons, or nations. The primary texts relevant to the historicist perspective are apocalyptic literature, such as the biblical books of Daniel and Revelation. The historicist method views Daniel's prophecies as being fulfilled throughout history, from the past through the present and into the future.
This perspective is sometimes referred to as the continuous historical view and interconnects the Roman Empire, Islam, the Papacy, the Modern era, and the end times into a long litany of events that finally culminate, at the end of human history, with the glorious return of our Lord. The historicist method begins with a study of Daniel chapter 2, and then progresses through subsequent prophecies in the book, including chapters 7, 8, and 11, applying them to important milestones in human history. As a result, the historicist perspective differs significantly from other Christian eschatological perspectives, such as Amillennialism, Postmillennialism, and Premillennialism.3
Postmillennialism
Postmillennialism is a theological belief in Christianity concerning the end times, also referred to as postmillenarianism. It is an interpretation of chapter 20 of the Book of Revelation that predicts Christ's second coming following a period of time known as the "Millennium." During this period, Christian ethics will flourish. This viewpoint includes similar ideas about the end times and differs from premillennialism and, to a lesser extent, amillennialism (more details about these differences in Christian eschatology are explained below).
Postmillennialism proposes that Jesus Christ established His kingdom on earth through His teachings and redemptive actions in the first century. He equipped His followers with the gospel and empowered them with the Holy Spirit. He also entrusted them with the Great Commission (as stated in Matthew 28:19) to disciple all people.
The belief asserts that eventually, the vast majority of people will come to be saved. As the success of the gospel message increases, there will come a period where faith, righteousness, peace, and prosperity will dominate the affairs of nations and people. Following this extended period of positive conditions, Jesus Christ will return in a visible, bodily, and glorious manner, thereby bringing history to an end through the general resurrection and final judgment. Then, the eternal order will begin.4
Premillennialism
Premillennialism holds that Jesus will return to Earth physically, at the Second Coming, before the Millennium. This event will mark the beginning of a thousand-year golden age of peace during which a Third Temple will be established, and Jesus Christ will rule the whole world from his throne in Jerusalem. This belief is rooted in a literal interpretation of Revelation 20:1-6, which places a strong emphasis on the earthly millennial reign of Christ as well as the rapture of the faithful occurring either before (in the case of dispensationalism) or after (in the case of historicism) the Great Tribulation that precedes the Millennium. Premillennialists are convinced that the establishment of the Jewish State in 1948 is a herald of the imminent fulfillment of various prophecies such as the Olivet Discourse, the Man of Sin, and the coming of Christ in the clouds of heaven as described in the book of Revelation.5
These are the four primary viewpoints on Bible prophecies embraced by almost 3 billion Christians worldwide today. Each can be substantiated using verses from the Bible or by referring to the agreement among early Church Fathers regarding significant matters such as the authorship and identity of the "Man of Sin" in the book of Revelation. Nevertheless, while these traditions may uphold a particular established order, they also hinder Christians from perceiving the broader perspective and identifying potential challenges that may lead to confusion or contradict the explicit assertions of the New Testament.
1
The Four Kingdoms of Bible Prophecy
In our exploration of this significant subject, we turn to the Book of Daniel—a time when King Nebuchadnezzar ruled over the Neo-Babylonian kingdom. This empire had conquered the Levant and captured the rebellious province of Yehud. Among the captives were four young men: Daniel, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. The prophecy of the four kingdoms in the Bible can be found in the Book of Daniel, specifically in chapters 2 and 7. In this section, we will delve into their identities, durations, and the distinction between natural and unnatural intervals.
Chapter 2 recounts how King Nebuchadnezzar had a dream that eluded his memory upon waking.
Desperately seeking an interpretation but unable to recall the dream itself, the king summoned his astrologers, wise men, and magicians, demanding both the dream and its interpretation. However, they failed to provide it. Ultimately, a Judean captive named Daniel, serving in Nebuchadnezzar's court, miraculously revealed both the dream and its meaning.
The dream foretold the emergence of four kingdoms. The first, symbolized by a head of gold, represented Nebuchadnezzar's Neo-Babylonian empire. It would be followed by a second kingdom, inferior, with a chest, arms, and hands of silver. This second kingdom would, in turn, give way to a third, characterized by a belly and thighs of brass. Lastly, a fourth kingdom, composed of iron shins and feet mixed with iron and clay, would arise. In this vision, a Stone, hewn from a mountain, descended and struck the towering image's iron and clay feet, shattering it. The Stone then ground the image into fine chaff, which a great wind carried away, leaving no trace. Subsequently, the Stone transformed into a great mountain, filling the whole earth. Daniel interpreted the Stone as the kingdom of God, set to emerge during the days of ten kings, symbolized by the toes of the image. He assured Nebuchadnezzar that this fifth kingdom would be indestructible and not given to another people.6
The theme of the four kingdoms reappears in Daniel 7, where they are depicted as living beasts emerging from a stormy sea.
The first kingdom, representing the Neo-Babylonian realm, appears as a lioness with two wings; it has a heart of a man, and stands on two feet. The second kingdom is described as a bear with three ribs in its mouth, voraciously consuming flesh. The third kingdom takes the form of a four-headed leopard with four wings.
In Daniel's night vision, the fourth kingdom is not clearly identified as any particular animal but seems to amalgamate various elements. Nevertheless, it possesses feet that trample and crush God's saints into atoms, featuring ten horns on its head, with an eleventh horn arrogantly speaking against God.
While in Daniel 2, a Stone struck the ten toes, in Daniel 7, one resembling a 
Son of Man ascended on the clouds to the Ancient of Days, gaining an everlasting kingdom. The blasphemous horn was given authority for three and a half years before its dominion was taken away, and it was consumed by fire. The lioness, bear, and leopard had their dominion removed, but their lives were prolonged for a season and a time.7
These intriguing prophecies significantly fascinated and impacted Jewish Bible teachers and students for nearly 600 years, leading to the development of fixed presuppositions and beliefs about the true identity of the fourth kingdom. It was widely agreed that all four kingdoms comprised Gentile powers that would rise and fall before the Jewish people assumed their rightful place at the highest levels of leadership among nations. However, it is worth noting that the New Testament does not assume or suggest that the fourth kingdom was the Roman Empire (Matt. 21:43). Instead, there are indications that John the Baptist, Jesus, and the Apostles believed the fourth kingdom to be the rebellious, aggressive, and hostile Second Jewish Commonwealth (Matt. 3:7-12; 8:12; 10:14-23; 26:64). This kingdom stood ready for judgment and ultimate destruction during the first and second centuries (Matt. 23:29-39 cf. Rev. 16:1-4; 17:5; 18:20, 24; 19:1-4).8
Post-Exilic History or Human History
From the Time of Daniel to Christ?
When examining the transition of power from one kingdom to another, we notice that they rise and fall in relatively short, finite periods. Babylon's reign, for example, lasted for 70 years (from 605 B.C. to 539 B.C.). Conversely, the Medeo-Persian empire ruled for 228 years (from 539 B.C. to 311 B.C.), while the Hellenistic era spanned 170 years (from 311 B.C. to 140 B.C.). From our research, Judaea emerges as the fourth principality of Bible prophecy, divided into three distinct periods: the Hasmonean (163—37 B.C.), Herodian (37 B.C.—A.D.66), and Zealot-Idumean revolutionary period (A.D.66—70) and Bar Kokhba Rebellion (A.D.132—136, this last instance is not on 
this diagram but will be discussed at length). This entire Hasmonean, Herodian, Judæo-Idumean, and Bar Kokhba period lasted 299 years, from 163 B.C. to A.D. 136. It encompasses every prophecy in the New Testament, from the birth of our Lord to the end of the State of Israel in A.D. 136. In comparison to the Four Views model, this scenario presents a different fourth kingdom and a distinct period, starting with Octavian's victory over Marcus Anthony and Queen Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 B.C., extending until at least four possible end-dates, which we will discuss further.9
Granting the Roman Fourth
Empire for Discussion’s Sake
In our pursuit of fairness and to avoid one-sidedness in our discussions with Christians who hold differing beliefs, it is imperative that we acknowledge the possibility that their assumptions regarding a Roman fourth kingdom hold validity. With grace, humility, and generosity, we should engage in dialogue to gain a better understanding of both perspectives. This approach allows each side the opportunity to compare differing outlooks on topics such as the inception of a Jewish fourth kingdom during the Hanukkah period in 163 B.C. and its culmination with Jewish statehood on September 23, 141 B.C. Now, it is worth noting that the Roman Republic, under the leadership of General Gnaus Pompey the Great, subdued Hasmonean Judea in 63 B.C. Subsequently, Jerusalem experienced brief moments of hegemony, first occurring around 15 November A.D. 66 to 30 March A.D. 70, and again from 12 October A.D. 132 to 20 February A.D. 136 under the leadership of Simon Bar Kokhba. While these instances of Jewish independence are of critical historical significance, they have no direct bearing on the premises, the theoretical underpinnings, or the teachings inherent in any of the Four Views. Recognizing the natural sequence of events and acknowledging the implications of the Maccabean Revolt and the emergence of the Hasmonean state and kingdom, we find that Jewish success on 25 Kislev 163 B.C. predates the birth of the Roman Empire on 13 January 27 B.C. by a full 136 years. Consequently, the Four Views rest upon a questionable foundation whenever an appeal is made suggesting that the Roman Empire ‘must be’ the fourth kingdom of Bible prophecy.
Roman Empire and Proposed
Beginning and ‘End’ Dates
When considering the fourth kingdom as the Roman Empire, we must take into account various sets of numbers, as well as the starting and ending points, and how the Romans intersect with Holy Land and New Testament history. This prompts several questions: Should we calculate the fourth kingdom from the establishment of Rome on 21 April 753 B.C.? Or should we base it on the start of the Roman Republic in 509 B.C.? Alternatively, should we begin our calculation in 27 B.C. when the empire entered its imperial period? For the sake of consistency and expediency, and due to the fact that the count of Roman emperors hinges upon it, we will assume that the imperial period is the appropriate starting point, commencing in 27 B.C. The relevant dates are as follows:
Founding date: 13 January 27 B.C. First emperor, Augustus. The Pax Romana endured from January 13th, 27 B.C. until the death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius on 17 March A.D. 180. This 
era encompassed the reigns of the five good emperors. Two hundred and thirty years later, Rome was sacked by Alaric on 24 August A.D. 410.
However, the fall of the western Roman Empire only became a reality on 4 September A.D. 476 when Augustus Romulus surrendered his crown to Odoacar, leaving Constantinople and Thessaloniki as the sole remaining heirs to the continuing Roman Empire.10 One hundred and forty-six years before Rome's conquest, the capital of the Roman Empire was officially transferred to Constantinople on 11 May, A.D. 330, by Emperor Constantine the Great. The eastern section of the Roman Empire continued uninterrupted until 29 May, A.D. 1453, when it was terminated by Sultan Mehmed II, 223 years later.
It is evident that the possibilities of a Roman fourth kingdom paradigm are both radical and deviate significantly from the context of the New Testament's prophetic narrative. We must be prepared to consider if inclusion of the Romans in the kingdom lineup is farcical because it does not easily sqaure with the context of the Bible or any events it invisions. Giving credence to it introduces artificial latitude, but more importantly, it renders what is relevant about the fourth kingdom impermissible to discuss, let alone believe and openly acknowledge. Each of us must weigh the idea that the four kingdoms serve as a timetable for only a Post-exilic Jewish period, leading to the establishment of the kingdom of God in the first and second centuries of our Common Era, or whether it pertains to only Gentile kingdoms, starting with Neo-Babylon and culminating with a Roman fourth kingdom that fell far beyond any discernible deadline and never fulfilled any apocalyptic prophecies when it faded into history. This Roman fourth kingdom seems to lack discernable predictive value in either the first or second centuries but defied conventional expectations repeatedly in A.D. 410, 476, 1453, and beyond. These are the realities of the Roman Empire and knowing how Rome and the Romans fall short helps us objectively understand the options that are before us.
Upon examination, the Roman fourth kingdom model collapses because it introduces a fundamentally different and alien dynamics when compared to the Jewish fourth kingdom model. Roman political control in the Holy Land commenced in 63 B.C. with Pompey the Great's conquest of Jerusalem. It solidified twenty-six years later when Herod the Great successfully deposed and had the last Hasmonean ruler, King Mattityahu II Antigonus, 
assassinated by beheading in 37 B.C.11 In direct contrast, the Jewish fourth kingdom model offers a distinct advantage due to its concise and decisive contributions that align seamlessly with the underlying narrative and the sense of urgency inherent in New Testament prophecies. This consistency is notable not only in the Gospels but also extends through Acts, the epistles, and to the conclusion of the apocalyptic drama in the book of Revelation.
Revelation Chapters 11-19 and More
Mysteries of the Fourth Kingdom
Unraveling the chaotic coalition government as the 'toes of iron and clay' foretold in Daniel chapter 2. Revelation Chapters 11-17 provide a unique perspective on the complex historical events surrounding the Jewish fourth kingdom and the enigmatic Roman fourth kingdom. It is essential to distinguish between the shins of iron and the thighs of brass. The shins of iron represent the period of Hasmonean ascendancy from 163 B.C. to 37 B.C., followed by the rapid decline of Judæan sovereignty. Subsequently, the feet of iron and clay correspond to the Herodian dynasty's usurpation and their rule over Roman Judæa from 37 B.C. to 8 Marcheshvan A.D.66. This era culminated in a revolutionary coalition government when the Zealots forcefully expelled Agrippa II and all Roman authorities from Jerusalem. The resulting leadership vacuum marked a significant turning point in the fulfillment of biblical prophecies. The assumption that the New Testament's basic background is a Roman fourth kingdom requires careful reexamination. To succeed it necessarily offsets and replaces first-century Jerusalem and the civilization of the Second Jewish Commonwealth, whose end came quickly, with Rome and the Roman civilation whose vastness and historical longevity challenge any attempts to connect it directly to biblical prophecies. At what point in Roman history did the Stone stricke the feet of the Roman fourth kingdom? Was it A.D. 410, 476, 1453, or will it be a future date? Either past or future, the answer is uncertain. In contrast to the Jewish fourth kingdom theory raises answerable questions because Revelation's seals, trumpets, and bowls can be shown to be specific judgments that lead directly to the destruction of one city: Jerusalem.12
The Four Views perspective favors the notion of a Roman fourth kingdom while dismissing the one final kingdom crucial to Bible prophecy: Judæa itself. This fourth kingdom, initially established by Judas the Maccabee and the Hasmonean family, later appropriated by Herod the Great and his descendants, was violently reclaimed by a coalition of Zealots and Idumæans from in A.D.66., immediately thereafter a harrowing forty-two month period of internecine intrigue, pandemonium, and chaos ensued. But Four Views interpretations suggest that Revelation 13 somehow describes the 
pinnacle of Roman power, but this is incorrect because the halcyon days of the Romans appeared, disappeared and reappeared multiple times from the time of Emperor Vespasian to the reign of Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos.13 (This last Emperor Constantine was an Orthodox Christian and he gave glory to God and his Son before going out to die, unlike the Beast and the false prophet who blasphemed God in this life and entered perdition upon their demise from this world).14 The chapter's imagery of the fourth kingdom as a chimera with the body of a leopard, feet of a bear, and a lion's mouth and its connection to the city of seven mountains implies a mutual destruction leading to parallel defeat, as described in Revelation 19:1-4 and 19:15-21. The timeline of Revelation 11:1-2 to Revelation 14:9-13 and 15:1-5 portrays the victory of the original Christians over the beast, its image, mark, and the number of its name. However, the seven bowls, prepared in that very same chapter (Rev. 15:6) end up consummating God's war against Jerusalem, but not Jerusalem only, but also the forces of the beast that had imposed its images, mark, name and number on it and the Christians.
We see this twin trajectory spelled out from Revelation 16:1-21 to Revelation 19:1-21. And so, both chapters perfectly align with the defilement, judgment, and destruction of Second Temple and Jerusalem, first culminating on 4 August A.D.70, and then the extending out to the defeat of Zealot armies over the next three years when the Romans were able to overcome them by heading SE to the fortress of Herodium, then NE to the Forests of Yardenit, then S to fortress of Machaerus, and finally SW to the fortress of Masada.15 But is there documentation supporting such a precise sequence of events terminating the Roman Empire, and if so, what are the years in question?
Conclusion
In conclusion the immediacy of the defeat of Jerusalem and the Jewish armies long before the alleged termination of the Roman Empire, directly challenges Four Views eschatology and presents two fundamentally different models of eschatology to consider: A Roman fourth kingdom or a Jewish one. Either way we chose, each of these choices has very different beginning and end dates and they each have significant implications for our perception of the meaning, interpretation, and function of Bible prophecy. We must carefully weigh the evidence and the logical coherence of each perspective to arrive at a more comprehensive understanding of this complex theological issue and be willing to explain the reasons why in a clear and persuasive way. As we explored the convergence of Bible history and Jewish history, it became increasingly evident that the biblical narrative starkly contrasts with ideologies that unanimously project the presumptive role of the fourth kingdom onto the Romans. However, it is crucial to recognize, reconcile, and explain why the Jewish civilization was roundly defeated in the generation of our Lord's contemporaries but Rome was not. By allowing the New Testament to interpret and unify relevant facts within its stated or implied parameters, we can each gain a deeper understanding of complex historical events that match Jewish salvation history but conflict with and exclude Roman imperial history and follow the facts wherever they lead to a fresh and stable understanding of biblical prophecy.
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2
The New Testament Time Statements: Fulfillment
in the Lifetime of Contemporary Eeyewitnesses
The second aspect under investigation comprises two parts: the concept of "this generation" and the precise time statements concerning audience relevance throughout the New Testament, spanning from the Gospel of Matthew to the Book of Revelation. Throughout the New Testament, various affirmations, allusions, and warnings consistently emphasize that all events were destined to occur within a century. This sense of urgency was evident from the moment John the Baptist commenced his preaching.(Matt. 3:7-7) Similarly, during Jesus' three-and-a-half-year ministry, the notion of impending and imminent disruptive judgment events was palpable and intricately woven into his teachings, imbuing them with gravity and imminent danger as his intimations of proximity and his repitative use of the expression ‘this generation,’ makes clear in the following passages:
For the Son of man shall come in the glory of his Father with his angels; andd then he shall reward every man according to his works. Verily I say unto you, There be some standing here which shall not taste of death till they see the Son of man coming in his kingdom. (Matt. 16:28).
Now learn a parable of the fig tree; When his branch is yet tender, and puts forth leaves, you know that summer is near: So likewise you, when you see these things, know that it is near, even at the doors. Verily I say unto you, This generation shall not pass away till all these things be fulfilled. (Matt. 24:32-34)
Moreover, Luke 23:27-31 promises an event that ‘coincidently’ finds its fulfillment in Revelation 6:12-17 (which means it has to be happening in the lifetime of the women and who witnessesed Jesus trudge his way to Golgotha). More time indicators show up in the book of Acts and beyond . . .
Save yourselves from this untoward generation. (Acts 2:40)
Beware therefore, lest that come upon you, which is spoken of in the prophets; Behold, you despisers, and wonder and perish: for I work a work in your days, a work which you shall in no wise believe, though a man declare it unto you. (Acts 13:40-41)
The night is far spent and the day is at hand, now is your salvation nearer than when you first believed. (Ro. 13:11)
And the God of peace shall bruise Satan under your feet shortly. (Ro. 16:20)
The present distress and 'the time is short' (1 Cor. 7:29)
Behold! I tell you a mystery. We shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet. (1 Cor. 15:51-52).
From information we gathered we can see that the coming of the kingdom of God entails the destruction of the Second Temple, Second Coming of Christ, the resurrection of the dead at the last trumpet, judgment and the destruction of Jerusalem. But crucially, the invasion of the Second Temple, the last trumpet, the coming of the kingdom of God, and the resurrection of the dead are all detailed and combined in Revelation chapter 11, specifically in
verses 1-2, 15, and 18. In other words, these time statements and the other realities of the eschaton, along with real-world events that can be documented as having happened between A.D.66 and A.D.70, point to and underscore the imminent nature of these events the New Testament repeatedly insists were then near and this makes the Gospels, Acts, and epistles essential for understanding the book of Revelation. They elucidate the concept of the kingdom of God transitioning away from the first covenant 'children of the kingdom,' rather than from the Romans, who had never known or enjoyed such a special relationship with God in the first place. And so, Jesus' teachings, prophecies, and parables also have a direct bearing on who exactly these 'children of the kingdom' are. Furthermore, the New Testament not only provides clarity about the timing of the end but also sets constraints on the extent of Satan's influence, incarceration, and return and this information helps to inform us how to conduct a proper research, study, and interpretation of Revelation 20. Jesus' Parable of the Wicked Spirit is definitive because it constrains Satan's expulsion and return to a single generation—the generation of Jesus' day, as supported by Matthew 12:43-45 and Revelation 20:3, 7. Moreover, the New Testament consistently emphasizes that Satan was not bound until the destruction of Jerusalem, dispelling the notion that he currently reigns as "the god of this world." These time statements and audience relevance considerations reveal that the Second Coming was imminent for early Christians but not for us—why? Because passages like Matthew 10:23, 16:27-28, 24:29-34, and 26:64 predicate, demand, and constrain the appearance of the Lord and his armies to appear in the skies over Judæa within that one generation and if the time came and went and everything failed to happen that would automatically render the prophecies null and void and categorically false. And so, according to this interpretation, Caiaphas did not witness the ascension of Jesus but he did witness His return during the destruction of Jerusalem approximately 37 years later (see Rev. 1:7 and Rev. 11:15-18).
We can safely assume that the six seals describe events that occurred within the lifetime of individuals alive during Jesus' journey to Golgotha also experienced the events described in Revelation 6:15-17. The subsequent chapters in Revelation depict perilous circumstances faced by early Christians in Asia Minor, with the expectation that the Second Coming would 
provide relief. Revelation 11:1-2, for example, portrays the Second Temple as the epicenter of activity, and Jerusalem is delivered to be trampled underfoot for 42 months. Contrary to some interpretations, it was not the Romans who did this, as verse 8 explicitly refers to "the great city where our Lord was crucified." This passage also discusses the resurrection of the dead and judgment, aligning with the Jewish expectation of the end of the world.
The Heavenly Battle in Revelation 12:7-9
In Revelation 12:7-9, we witness a series of extraordinary events, leaving us to ponder when and where they transpired. Do these events harken back to prehistoric times, or should we interpret them as unfolding in the first century? Remarkably, we possess firsthand accounts that shed light on the timing and location of this astonishing occurrence, preserved within the astonishing reports of Tacitus and Josephus, who documented real events in Jerusalem during A.D. 66.
During this tumultuous period, prodigious phenomena manifested themselves. The superstitious nation, averse to religious rituals, refrained from appeasing these prodigies through offerings and sacrifices. They beheld celestial armies clashing in the skies, the gleam of fiery weapons, and a sudden radiance illuminating the temple from the clouds. The inner sanctum's doors swung open, and a voice, surpassing mortal tones, proclaimed the departure of the gods. Simultaneously, there arose a great commotion, akin to a departure. While some interpreted these events with trepidation, the majority steadfastly believed that their ancient priestly records foretold the East's rise to power at this precise juncture, with rulers emerging from Judaea to attain universal dominion. These enigmatic prophecies pointed to Vespasian and Titus. However, blinded by ambition, the common people erroneously interpreted these grand destinies as their own, remaining impervious to the truth even in the face of adversity.16
The fact that such a spectacle unfolded in the skies above the Second Temple in the first century of the Jewish war underscores the gravity of the conflict. It transcended mere human confrontation; it was a battle of principalities and powers, obstructing any significant advancement in Jewish salvation history. The words of the Apostle Paul in Ephesians 6:12 come to mind:
For we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wickedness in high places.
The notion that the conflicts during A.D. 33 to 66 interval between the Apostles and the opposing Jewish authorities and extremist was merely a difference of interpretation and opinion is erroneous. Much more was happening and more was at stake. The consequences were of paramount significance, as the conflict revolved around whether Jesus was the true Messiah of Israel, whether He rose from the dead, and whether the Second Temple and Levitical priesthood would remain not only viable, but also permissible in the foreseeable future. The reality was that the truth of Christ, His Gospel, and His resurrection were being negated by lies fomented by malevolent forces and vested interests, not only in the upper echalons of the Jewish world, but also in the invisible realm of principalities and powers whose ambition was to claim as many souls for perdition and damnation as possible.
Note how in Revelation 11:15 and 12:10, the kingdom of God is proclaimed not as imminent but inaugurated, arrived. These verses appear to echo each other, as if the events in Chapter 11 align with those in Chapter 12. The events described in Daniel's fourth kingdom (2:44, 7:24, 9:26, 12:1-2) culminate in the prophecies detailed in Revelation chapters 11:1-18, 12:1-12, 13:1-18, 14:8-20, 16:1-21, and 17:1-19:1-4. This cluster of events pertains to the lifetimes and concerns of the apostles and early Christians, devoid of any connection to our modern historical horizon. The inspired promises of imminent fulfillment commence in Luke 2:34 and Matthew 3:7-12, and persist throughout Romans 9:27-29, 16:20, Revelation 2:24-28, 22:12, and 20. These promises must be understood as more than ‘encouragement’ or mere platitudes but earnest warnings, as the end of the Second Jewish Commonwealth rapidly approached, bringing forth changes that would forever alter the spiritual landscape of time and eternity. But the possibility of these eschatology promises proving false would be completely catastrophic for the credibility of the New Testament, the integrity of the Spirit of truth, and the faith of Christians (then and now). Under no circumstances could God declare a specific course of action and then retract His promises.
In conclusion, these time statements and audience relevance considerations provide insights into when Jerusalem Christians became refugees and how they perceived the Romans during the chaos of the Jewish revolt. Historical records show that the Romans protected pacifists, Jews, Jewish Christians, proselytes, and Idumeans during the revolt, raising questions about the notion that that generation passed away but all the prophecies Jesus foretold would happen failed to transpire. Available evidence will not support such a conclusion.
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3
The Second Temple in the Eschatological Context
We have examined the four kingdoms of Bible prophecy and the fourth kingdom and our two options of who or what it could possibly be. We have also reviewed audience relevance issues and specific time statements and observed how, if recognized, they inform and contrain our subject and put boundaries around it that limit or exclude conclusions we would otherwise reach. A third aspect we will explore is the edifice that stood at the forefront of ancient Jerusalem from 516 B.C. until August 4 A.D. 70: The Second Temple. According to a plain sense interpretation of New Testament texts, the abomination of desolation foretold by Daniel would happen in none other than the Second Temple. This edifice was constructed to replace the renowned Solomon's Temple, which had been plundered, burnt, and demolished by King Nebuchadnezzar on the 9th of Ab in 586 B.C. More than 70 years afterward, under the rule and permission of King Cyrus of Persia, this second facility was completed by the Jewish governor Zerubbabel in 516 B.C. and for 348 years, no known events threatened its existence.
However, in 168 B.C., the Greek monarch, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the great-grandson of Seleucus I Nicator, invaded this sacred space. He installed a statue of Zeus there, killed over 40,000 Jews in Jerusalem, and forbade all Jewish religious practices. It wasn't until Judas the Maccabee and his supporters managed to repel the Greeks and their Hellenist sympathizers that on 25 Kislev 163 B.C. the services in the Second Temple were restored, an amazing moment commemorated in the Hanukkah holiday. However, one hundred and forty-three years later, in 20 B.C., the supposed year of the Virgin Mary's birth, King Herod I initiated a renovation project for the Second Temple. This project lasted for eighty-two years and concluded in A.D. 62.17
Now, if the Second Temple was to be the location of the abomination of desolation foretold by the 
prophet Daniel, according to Jesus, (Matt. 24:15, Mark 13:14, and Luke 21:20), that fact must be another factor that circumscribes our understanding and interpretation of how the eschatology of Daniel and Jesus, Paul and John plays out.
In Four Views circles it is generally known that the Romans were in control of Judæa and Second Temple Jerusalem immediately before, during and after the ministry of our Lord. But specifically the Romans ruled the Holy Land from the arrival and conquest of Pompey the Great in 63 B.C., and in the first century Roman troops were stationed at the Tower of Antonia overlooking it and keeping an ever watchful eye over goings on.
The Four Views acknowledge that the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in A.D.70 but go further to maintain that the Romans were solely responsible for sullying it and making it unholy when they marched in triumph with their standards and golden eagles to confiscate all the gold and precious objects contained therein. In conventional wisdom the Romans then burned the Second Temple to the ground and hold the infamy of being the ones who not only destroyed God's earthly house, but also committed the enigmatic abomination of desolation. But a closer reading of the history of the destruction of Jerusalem reads differently and offers reasons why there are good reasons to reject the conventional wisdom that pins the blame of abomination of desolation and destruction of the Second Temple on the Romans. Instead, the evidence in Josephus' wars names the Zealots as the culprits who both occupied the Temple and initiated its physical destruction for a solid period of forty-two months. Can we look at this evidence?
Events That Signal Jewish Custody
and Control of the Second Temple
First, the Roman general Cestius, according to Josephus, converged on Jerusalem, which at that time continued to be in Roman control, to dissuade the Zealots from continuing their weeks long seige and civil war against the Jerusalem Aristocracy. When Cestius arrived with Roman troops from Syrias the Zealots fled in terror, thinking the city was on the verge of falling under immediate reconquest, however, at the very moment when Cestius could have obtained the victory, he withdrew his forces. When the Zealots saw his sudden retreat they regained their courage and followed him out and harrassed him as his troops fled toward N toward the Beth Horon gorge.18 Josephus' miticulous accounts reveal the shocking defeat of Rome's armies at Beth Horon and states that five thousand six hundred Roman soldiers and four hundred and thirty footmen were slaughtered in the exact same location where Judas the Maccabee had won his victory against the Greeks some 233 years beforehand. This coincidence was not lost on the Zealots or the generality of Jews at the time and it was read as a sign from God that this incumbent Jewish revolt against Roman rule would succeed. The Jewish forces returned loudly exulting at which time tens of thousands flocked to the Second Temple, appointted ten generals to govern seven regions of the Holy Land and from this point on the Second Temple was firmly in Jewish hands and this is where St. John's statement about the Second Temple Revelation 11:1-2 are relevant.19 Now this specific Temple, as indicated by various Scriptures, played a central and critical role in the eschatological conclusion of the Mosaic era and passages that indicate this include Daniel 9:24-27, Malachi 3:1-5; 2 Matthew 24, Mark 13, Luke 21 and Thessalonians 2:1-13; Revelation 11:1-8, 13:1-18, 14:9-20, 16:1-21, 17, 18, 19:1-4. As with the first and second aspects we studied there is an almost complete overlap of information that together portrays the extent of social decay and social confusion that increasingly plagued the Second Jewish Commonwealth as it descended into tyranny and terror, and catastrophic disasters, famine, infighting, and rivers of blood in the Second Temple, in the city, in the country, and everywhere in the farthest reaches of Jewish civilization. But it is a mistake to assume that the Second Temple was a place reknowned for it purity, integrity, or holiness and if we peer into its sordid reputation as a place for underhanded dealing we discoverd it had the reputation as a place of greed, oppression, and violence.
A poem has survived that encapsulates what the Second Temple came to represent in the eyes of ordinary people. "The House of Kathros" is one of the families of the High Priests who, in practical terms, ruled over Jewish Palestine in the days of the Roman procurators. They had assumed important positions in the Temple and had abused their authority through nepotism and oppression. A folk song preserved in Talmudic literature narrates the corruption of these priests:
Woe is me because of the House of Beothus, woe is me because of their slaves.
Woe is me because of the House of Hanan, woe is me because of their incantation.
Woe is me because of the House of Kathros, woe is me because of their pens.
Woe is me because of the House of Ishmael, son of Phiani, woe is me because of their fists. For they are the High Priests, and their sons are treasurers, and their sons-in-law are trustees, and their servants beat the people with staves. (Babylonian Talmud, Pesahim 57, 1=Tosefta, Minhot 13, 21).
This refrain expresses the suffering of the people under the oligarchic rule of a priesthood that used any means to advance its interests. Each of the priestly families mentioned here practiced its own form of oppression, whether through words, pens, or brute force. The "House of Kathros," accused of misusing the written word, was notorious for libelous slander.20
During our Lord's ministry as rare show of fury happened when he overthrew the tables of the money changes and his prophecy about its Jesus made it abundantly clear that the worst possible event would occur in this sacred space. It would be a milestone which signalled to every Jewish Christian in or near Jerusalem to distance themselves as far as possible. From a first-century perspective, this was of utmost importance due to the imminent danger posed by the exit of the Romans but the takeover of Jerusalem by Jewish forces. The gates of the city would soon be closed, allowing people to enter the danger zone but not to leave. Passages like 2 Thessalonians 2:1-13 held great relevance for New Testament Christians, whether of Jewish or God-fearing background. Both groups faced the risk of being drawn back into a way of life that would lead to a catastrophic event, with thousands lured to Jerusalem, ensnared by sorcery, prohibited from leaving the city under the threat of death, and ultimately killed and incinerated.
The Old Testament contains passages that suggest that certain deeds would be committed by Jews. The historical context surrounding the prophecies in Daniel 8:9-14, which concluded in 163 B.C. when St. Judas the Maccabee purified the Second Temple, reveals that these events were initially incited by pro-Hellenist Jews who sought to convert the Temple into a shrine dedicated to Zeus. In essence, if it weren't for the malevolent forces within Israel, the initial abomination of desolation may never have occurred. However, in this first-century scenario, something analogous took place: Ideologues, or as Josephus referred to them as "sophists," are determined to subvert the Levitical priesthood, deviating significantly from the Laws of Moses and delving into sorcery and black magic. (Rev. 13:13-18) To be fair, Daniel 9:24-27 can be interpreted as having either Jewish or Roman implications, but understanding the historical context is crucial to pinpointing exact circumstances will include one of these options while excluding the other. Similarly, Matthew 24:15 and Mark 13:14 have been associated with Romans, yet further investigation is required. In 2 Thessalonians 2, a frequently debated passage, some Four Views proponents argue that Nero, and no one else, fulfilled, what Paul foretold, more or less to the letter. But examining Josephus Wars we see a completely different story. Jewish forces took over the Second Temple and appointed generals for the war; Jewish infighting in the city spread into the Second Temple itself, and a Jewish faction of Zealots sought cover in the Second Temple and succeeded in transforming the ediface into a virtual garrison for the first time in its existence. These
counterfactual realities negate the assumptions of conventional wisdom and reveal that Hebrew people (not Romans) had complete control of the city and the Temple, effectively implicating them in any deeds that would happen there in the complete absense of any Romans. And what happened next was marked by a Star Chamber, treacherous trials, unjust verdicts murders, and what Martin Hengel termed a 'Vehmet Court' of predetermined verdicts and barberous executions.21 Using the Second Temple as their base of operation, the Zealots and Idumeans joined their forces to slaughter eight thousand five hundred worshipers in a night of unimaginable bloodshed. Not only were Zealot and Idumena forces in control of the Second Temple but also strange forms of worship were introduced even as a shortage of wood led to terrifying fears that the Second Temple services would not be able to continue on for very long while tens of thousands of Jews and prosylites continued to stream into the crowded city, intimating the impending disaster Paul warned the Thessalonians of in to 2 Thessalonians 2. Accordingly, after forty-two months of Second Temple by barberous Jewish forces the city that means that Jerusalem received up to TEN reinforcements of Jews and prosylites converging into the city for Peshach, or Shavuot, or Sukkot; this happened three times in A.D.67; three times in A.D.68; three times in A.D.69, and a final time in A.D.70—at which momentous point the Romans gained the upper hand and successfully sealed off the city intrapping more than two million people in what Josephus calls a 'prison.'22 The Second Temple and the false teacher's and prophet's promises that God would show the Hebrew people and the proselytes great signs and wonders that the Romans would be defeated in a holy war is the only reason multitudes continued to make their way from all directions in the world of the Second Jewish Commonwealth in the first place; this interpretation, in their minds, made obvious sense and stood against what they perceived to be the novel and unlikely belief of the Christians that Jesus was going to come back and orchestrate the complete destruction of everything the people had known for fourteen centuries going back to the time of Moses and Aaron and Mariam.
Conclusion
We have noted how the Second Temple is understood in Four Views eschatology. And we noted that attention has been paid to prophecies of the destruction of the Second Temple in Daniel 9, which is unclear about who or what committs the deed. The Olivet Discourse, similarly can be interpreted to mean that the Romans would commit the acts that spelled the end of the Second Temple and conventional wisdom, all along the way in both Jewish and Christian history tends to place the blame for these actions on Titus and the Roman armies. But we noted that a careful review and rereading of Josephus' Wars account reveals an important change of hands, for the city and the Second Temple and this is where things get interesting because in the absense of Romans what happened in the forty-two month interval falls squarely on the shoulders of Jewish and Idumean miscreants who committed disturbing acts of mass murder and terrifying acts of blasphemy and sacriledge in the holiest space in all Judaism.
We find that, according to history, the abomination of desolation is not attributable to the Romans, but to seditious Jewish forces, who used the Second Temple as their base of operation, not only in their civil war against the moderate pro-Roman Jerusalem Aristocracy, but also in their efforts to retian Jewish support among the masses and to keep the Romans at bay. Our fourth discussion will center around who or what was Babylon the Great, the Great Harlot, how the Four Views interpret the biblical information and how Jesus' prophecies, indictments, and warnings against Judæa capital city are contradicted and underminded by what the Four Views believe the Bible speak about when it describes the judgment of a city on seven hills.
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4
The Identity of Babylon the
Great in the Book of Revelation
Our discussion was about the four kingdoms of Bible prophecy and the true identity of the fourth kingdom itself; our second inquiry was about New Testament time statements and audience relevance as it related to the impending nature of biblical prophecy in the lifetime of the first Christians. Our third concern was the Second Temple and who actually committed sacriledge in it as it entered its last days? In this next discussion we want to explore and talk about who or what is Babylon the Great City?
This inquiry has led many Christians to suggest various answers, ranging from pagan Rome to the Roman Catholic Church, or even a future Rome during a tribulation period preceding Christ's alleged return. However, before we delve into this discussion, it is crucial to familiarize ourselves again with the New Testament landscape to determine which claims about Babylon are substantiated and which are not. To establish this foundation, let us turn to the Gospels of Matthew, Luke, and John, where we find specific accusations leveled by Jesus against Jerusalem during his earthly ministry. This indictment against Jerusalem carries immense significance for our discussion, considering that Jerusalem had entered into a covenant with God through the Tanakh, the Law, and the Prophets (Isa.1:20 cf. Ezek. 16:18-21).
A conspicuous absence in the Four Views eschatology is this often-overlooked aspect of New Testament theology: the unique guilt assigned to Jerusalem and Jerusalem alone (Luke 9:31; Acts 5:28; Gal. 4:21-31; 1 Thess. 2:16; Rev. 11:8; 16:3-6; 17:5; 18:20-24; 19:1-4). Despite this, different Christian factions have clashed, notoriously labeling one another as "the whore of Babylon." Yet, such name-calling and labelling do not actually establish or constitute Scriptural proof of Babylon's true identity. Can any of these groups prove that Roman Catholics were present in Judæa in the first or second century, committing the specific offenses our Lord named? They cannot! But if any believe they can such an approach to the matter necessarily disregards the significance of what the entirety of God's Word says about one lone culpable city. Christians have dared to decipher and interpret who Babylon the Great is using biased and blame a city that never had a covenant relationship with God in the first place. Nonetheless, a strong case can be made that in the book of Revelation, Babylon symbolically represents first-century Jerusalem, as the accusations in Revelation 17:1-6 exactly parallel those in Matthew 23:29-39, Luke 11:45-51, and John 11:41-57. And integrating the subject of who Babylon is with what we already discussed about the fourth kingdom, an angel's dire proclamation in Revelation 14:9-11 warns of everlasting punishment for those who worship the beast, its image, or receive its mark. As we approach the sixth bowl judgment in Revelation, the events unfold in a logical sequence
with direct correlations to the exact history of the A.D. 70 destruction of Jerusalem. The confederacy of Satan, the beast, and the false prophet is vividly and seamlessly intertwine to form a unique outcome that has no parallel in any other civilization's history but that of the Jewish people and their famed capital (Rev. 16:12-21). And as the eve of the destruction neared and became obvious to all, note the urgency voiced in Revelation 16:15 where Jesus declares,
Behold, I come as a thief.
Revelation 16:17-21 contains remarkable details that are challenging to place within the timeline of Roman history itself, and this would be a natural inclination to do to line up with Four Views assumptions that Revelation chapter 16 has Roman miscreants in mind. But these warnings are not about the Romans or the end of the Roman Empire, which in John's day were more than a thousand years away anyway, but about Jerusalem on the very brink of her downfall. And as the month of Adar was coming to an end and Nisan was soon to begin, a final Passover would see a new influx of tens of thousands of deceived Jews and prosylites continue to stream into the doomed city, which was a diabolical trap. The culmination of this trap is recorded, symbolically, in Revelation, specifically chapters 17, 18, and 19. By the end of A.D.69 and early A.D. 70 the Romans were able to quell their own civil war and by the spring of A.D. 70, the Romans gathered their forces to prepare to either reclaim control Jerusalem and the Second Temple, which were both badly damaged by the Jewish civil war, or else destroy the city, the Second Temple and the sedition, all at once. To do this the Romans used the two powerful weapons they had: Diplomacy and catapults capable of hurling massive one hundred pound stones at Jerusalem's massive wall.
And it is here that the correspondence between Josephus's documentation and the Scriptures' prophecies is astonishing. Revelation 16:15's warning, "Behold, I come as a thief," is followed by a declaration from heaven, "IT IS DONE!" (Rev. 16:15-17) and a mere four verses later Jerusalem was hit wtih massive one hundred pound stones.23
Reevaluating Revelation 17:
A First-Century Jerusalem Perspective
In accordance with Revelation 11:2 and 8, which are the first verses that name the 'holy city' as 'the great city,' Revelation 17:9, the identifies a great city situated on seven mountains. But once again, Four Views theologians assert that this city could be none other than Rome, naming its seven hills with absolute confidence:
Palatine and Aventine, Caelian and Esquiline, Viminal, Quirinal, and the Capitoline hills.
However, it is essential to remember that there are twenty-four other cities on Earth with seven hills, yet they have not been accused of heinous crimes by the Lord. Strikingly and surprisingly, Jerusalem, and Jerusalem alone can be successfully accused of the crimes against the prophets, apostes, and saints AND can also claim to sit on seven mountains:
The Mount of Olives and Mount Scopus, Mount of Corruption and Mount Ophel, the original Mount Zion and the new Mount Zion, and the hill upon which the Antonia Fortress was constructed.
And so we have two competing claims that completely contradict each other's narrative and ddressing these issues with patience and respect allows us to reflect on any new evidence in a non-confrontational manner. It is crucial to recognize that the book of Revelation is not merely a collection of facts and data that assumes, a priori that the data is about a capital and a civilization who before that never had a covenant or a historic commitment to God in the first place, but rather it poses for us the reasons why God was divorcing, judging, and turning a chapter on the Law, the Second Temple, and the sacrifices, and the once hallowed city and its theocracy and opening up a new and living way into the holiest place of all: the new Jerusalem.
DISCUSSION
Even if we assume, for the sake of discussion, that Rome is the great city of Revelation, questions arise regarding when it was completely burned with fire, as stated in Revelation 18:8, 18, 21, and 19:3. To accept Rome as the great city, we must follow the prophecy to its logical conclusion in Revelation 19:4-21, which implies not only Rome's destruction but also the vanquishing of its military and religious institutions happened all at once. However, historical records do not support such a Roman scenario; no event resembling the total destruction of Rome, its military, or its religious apparatus occurred anywhere near the first century. In contrast, the destruction of Jerusalem is well-documented. As Josephus observed, the city's internal conflicts ultimately led to its downfall. He wrote,
"But it was most of all unhappy before it was overthrown, while those that took it did it a greater kindness; for I venture to affirm, that the sedition destroyed the city, and the Romans destroyed the sedition.24
The point of this fourth approach is that the book of Revelation focuses on the judgment and destruction or salvation and reward of individuals from a specific time, people group and city, a city that enjoyed a unique relationship with God, not just any city. It is not about any city with seven hills or mountains; and it must be an event that does not occur at any random time but within the lifetime of the seven churches of Asia Minor, close enough to their situation to provoke a strong and unlikely reaction from their Jewish rivals. (Rev.3:9) So if Rome were the city in question, it would be implausible for Jews to suddenly acknowledge the love of Jesus for Jewish Christians in the event of Rome's fall. The Jewish opponents of the early Church did not even believe in the resurrection of Jesus when they accepted the story concocted and propagated by the Jerusalem authorities that His disciples had stolen His body.
The destruction of Babylon, as described in Revelation 18 and 19, only makes sense if it refers to first-century Jerusalem, without equivocation. This destruction is attributed to her unfaithfulness to God and persecution of the prophets, apostles and first Christians. But the interesting part is this: After her destruction, Christ marries the Church, and this immediate development holds profound significance, as foreseen in the Gospels as indicated in the parables of the King's Son's Wedding and the Ten Virgins. On the other hand, there is no evidence in Scripture to suggest that a marriage of Christ to the church would follow the destruction of Rome. The Gospel parables do not allude to such a spiritual truth or sequence of events. And here, the absence of any mention in the Four Views paradigm that God consummated a marriage the church after Rome's fall in A.D. 476 is very indicative and revealing becuase this inconsistency underscores the pressing need to reevaluate the identity of the great city in the book of Revelation and recalibrate what that change of perspective means in the larger scheme of biblical themes and tenets.
Conclusion
Through a careful reexamination of Scripture and historical events, it becomes evident that the events described in Revelation chapers 11-19 are more aligned with the destruction of first-century Jerusalem than with Rome. This reevaluation sheds new light on the conventional Four Views interpretation of the book of Revelation and highlights the need to arrive at a different understanding of the unique significance of the A.D.70 destruction of Jerusalem in the unfolding of biblical prophecy.
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5
Satan’s Capture, Thousand Years Reign, Gog &
Magog, and Christ’s Triumph Over Zealot Nationalism
The fifth and final approach to the Four Views is the interpretation of Revelation chapter 20. How does it fit into the overall trajectory of events from the downfall of the Zealots at Masada in A.D.73? How does it make sense through the lens of the Four Views? In either case, that greatly depends!
First of all, in theoretical terms, Revelation 20 verse 1 represents a battleground where the Four View disagree the most about what the Bible means. Which means we need to tread carefully while, at the very same time, adding as much new information so that all parties in these discussion have fresh material to consider and work with. In the Four Views the literary structure does not determine what Revelation means. For example, in Amillennialism the millennium of chapter 20 began in the book of Acts. In Premillennialism the attack of Gog and Magog, which happens in the Bible only after the release of Satan, happens before the millennium began. As far back as the 1960s of the 20th century Dispensational enthusiastes mused the the U.S.S.R. (the Soviet Union) would converge and attack the Jewish State in fulfillment of the prophecies of Ezekiel chapters 38--39. But could that be true if and when the Bible posits such an invasion clearly after the thousand year reign? So two different ideas stand equally opposed to the Scriptures: The Amillennial belief that the millennium precedes and transcends the A.D.66--70 Jewish sedition or the Premillennial idea that Gog and Magog can (even now) invade the land of Israel (before the millennium supposedly began). The literary structure of the book of Revelation demands something very different. It requires that chapter 20 to follow logically at the end of events that begin with Revelation chapter 1 and 2 and 3, chapters 4 and 5, and chapters 6 through 19--in that order. From this order and the sense it gives, Revelation chapter 20 represents the zenith of the narrative (as the fire that comes down from God out of heaven represent the despensement of the seven thunders). Let's explain what we are seeing step by step. . .
Moving forward from A.D. 73, we gain insights into the Jerusalem church's leadership, self-perception, and outreach, as well as the Roman authorities' watchful eye, concern and governance over the chaotic affairs still affecting the Roman Empire because of rebellious Judean ideologues and militants still at large. To gain a comprehensive understanding of Revelation chapter 20, we must revisit the words of our Lord in the Gospels, exploring the significance of this intercalary period through key parables.
If we regard the events that span Revelation 6:1--19:21 Revelation 20:4 introduces a very specific group of Christians who did not worship the beast, its image, or receive its mark or name in their foreheads. Because of their refusal to acqueice to the demands of a hyper-Jewish nationalism they became martyrs distinct and unique from any other crisis or other periods and, because of these peculiarities, we are prevented from drawing any conclusions that conflict with these basic facts. For example, an interpretation that would place it before the milestone civil war events of A.D. 66 obviously militates against what has recently happened over the forty-two months of the Zealot sedition. What's next? Verse 5 is next. Verse 5 tells us that the rest of the dead did not live again until the thousand years were finished, signifying the first resurrection comes before, but another resurrection event will come later on. Only the martyrs from the First Revolt and the first-century tribulation were raised at the beginning of the thousand years.
Those raised at the beginning of the millennial period, closest to the first century are blessed and holy, while the others (the lost?) are raised at the opposite end, furthest away from the first century.
With Revelation 19:21 conclusion of the Roman mop-up operation of the First Great War with the Masada event marking the end of those hostilities, we rule out the cross of Pentecost or the book of Acts in any consideration for an explanation of the meaning of the meaning or interpretation of Revelation 2:1-4. Satan was not bound in the Gospels; he was not bound in Acts; and he is represented in the Pauline epistles as active in the world--"the prince of the power of the air, the spirit that now worketh in the children of disobedience." (Eph. 2:1-2). . It is therefore, imperative that we interpret subsequent events in the Scriptures consistently with the historical timeline we have established as accurate. Having resolved the events described in Revelation chapter 19 and considering that we are now more than forty years past the day of Pentecost, the next question arises: When does Satan become chained, held, bound, cast into the bottomless pit, imprisoned, and sealed in the abyss? To this question, Revelation 20, verses 1, 2, and 3 supply information that can be cross-referenced and cross-examined with the information below:
- Satan is apprehended, chained and bound, but the martyrs are raise to thrones.
- The martyrs on the throne rule the nations with a rod of iron, dashing them to pieces as a potter's vessel. This means nations exist to be ruled. after the fact of the destruction of Jerusalem.
- The martyrs reign as kings and priests--rulers and intercessors. But on behalf of who? Why are they priests if sin and evil ceased to exist at the Second Coming?
- After the thousand years are expired Satan is released out of his prison. This represents his return to the world of mankind.
- Satan's first attempt is to gather nations which are in the "four quarters of the earth." (Proof that the martyrs reigned over these nations and had power to break them to pieces).
- John names the armies Gog and Magog and attaches the address "the number of whom is as the sand of the sea." Two addresses appear: Ezekiel 38 and 39 and Hebrews 11:12 cf. Ro. 9:27). These together mean that Gog and Magog are Israelite troops and this war is a distinctly Hebrew war.
- Gog and Magog surround and attempt to strangle the camp of the saints and fire comes down from God out of heaven. The heaven and earth flee from the face of him that sits upon the throne and "no place was found for them." A general resurrection occurs from the sea, from death and hell and whoever was not found in the written in the book of life was subject to the second death, which is the lake of fire.
With these seven facts in mind, along with the constraints of what Jesus declared in Matthew 12:43-45; the litany events in Revelation 6:1--19:21, the definitive events of Revelation 20:1-4, the release and reintroduction of Satan in Revelation 20:7 and the final events of Revelation 20:8-15 we can surmise that the Waterloo and destruction of second-century Israel is in view in Revelation chapter 20. These stable facts provide a foundation upon which to build a comprehensible understanding of Revelation 20. Whether this interpretation is credible or incredible must become apparent to each believer in due time through prayerful study and patient reflection upon all aspects and nuances of the relevant facts.
Relevant Texts and Likely Interpretations
In my introductory comments I want to say something like. . .there's more to Revelation 20 than at first meets the eye. And both ends of the chapter have to be looked at cooly and objectively to get the get the maximum mileage out of it. This will help solve issues of redundancy, if there are any. And this will also help us place the chapter in a credible historical setting that can be objectively explored, if at all possible. In any case, Jewish interpretive,theological, and nationalist ambitions continued to clash with Christ-centered Christian realities as the fifteen verses that make up Revelation chapter 20 represent the twilight of all Bible prophecies and the last chance and literal end of the road for a ‘Peshat’ plain sense interpretation of Bible prophecy that late Second Temple Rabbinic authorities and Bible scholars were so bent on. The Christians, on the other hand, took an opposite 'Pesher' solution Midrash and ‘blasphemously’ predicted that Israel itself would disappear in the next great war. Who was right?
1 Deuteronomy 18:18-22 A prophet shall the Lord your God..and whoever shall not hear him shall be destroyed from among the people. Quoted from the LXX to Jewish authorities by the Apostle Peter in Acts 3:23.
2 Isaiah 10:22, quoted by the Apostle Paul from the LXX in Romans 9:27-28 is relevant to this discussion. 3 Isaiah 65, God is built a house and he rejects the house; animal sacrifices are offered and God rejects the sacrifices!? 4 Isaiah 66, God promises a new heaven and earth and afterward they go out and see the carcases of those that transgressed. How is that even possible from the vantage point of 'new planet'? The description of what happens afterward seems to militate against the interpretation that a 'new heavens and earth' = a new sky and planet, as Gentile Christians are too prone to surmise.
5 Ezekiel 38--39 cleanup of the wastland of bones of troops from the N, obviously the Romans. The armies of the Roman Empire buried in the Valley of Hamon-gog. Then God sets Jewish glory among the nations.
6 Daniel 2 the wind and the Chaff of the Summer threshingfloor. The promised 'mountain' of world-wide Jewish power. 7 Daniel 12 and the scattering of the power of the Holy People then these things shall be finished...another approximately four year period. Well, here again, the 'holy people' in Daniel's mind would at least have to be Jews, Israels, or both (Hebrews), but certainly not Romans or Gentiles. These passages and verses point back to these events as happening along the trajectory of the absolute course of Jewish salvation history, which ends, definitively with the Simon Bar Kokhba debacle, rather than the A.D.70 imbroglio or a yet future hypothetical scenario that automatically falsifies all imminent claims of the New Testament scriptures. These and other thoughts below are things Christians need to deeply and prayerfully consider.
4 In the Olivet Discourse (Matthean and Markan accounts) the days of the tribulation cut short for the elect's sake. Which means the events of A.D.66--70 were not exhaustive, another half was left off for the seek of people of God, otherwise a single war risks the Roman extinguishing the Jewish race once and for all in the first century; God did not want that.
We need to review the whereabouts of Satan in the Apostolic period to make sure we are on the same page that the devil was not bound at the ascension, on Pentecost or at any time before the A.D.70 destruction of Jerusalem. Furthermore, we need to review what happened in the Jewish civil sedition and note that Satan's power was at its peak during the forty-two month occupation of the Second Temple. All this is to say that Revelation 20 itself is a unique chapter in Revelation and what happens at Satan's release necessarily comes after the defeat of Jewish armies at Jerusalem and Herodium, the Forests of Yardenit, the Fortress of Machaerus, and Masada. Jewish Christians had only recently been beheaded (in A.D.66) and the combined imperatives of these several facts mean that the proverbial 'feet' of Revelation chapter twenty stand squarely on A.D.73 and the years, months and days after war in the Holy Land went quiet.
6 Prophecy precedent in Jeremiah and what Ezra, Nehemiah, and Zerubbabel were allowed to do after the seventy year Babylonian Captivity figured large in Jewish ideations and speculative thinking about what would surely repeat itself after the A.D.70 destruction of the Second Temple.
7 Understanding the Jewish language of prophecy--and especially hyperbole of the collapsing universe would not incline Jewish interpreters to understand that God would destroy the earth itself (as Gentile Christian interpreters would tend to surmise). Isaiah 13, 34, 60, and 66, along with Jeremiah 4, the outcome of the Gog-Magogian invasion and the language of King Antiochus' intrusion into the Second Temple in Daniel 8 would clearly indicate a government overthrow, not a planetary detonation of any kind.
Birds of the air and beasts of the field do not coverge on carcases in the case of utter oblivion. A seven month search for bones and their internment in a valley would be completely superfluous in an extreme interpretation where God replaces this Earth with a new planet. The promises of God in the Tanakh and the promises of God's Son in the Beatitudes was that the meek would inherit the Earth. The great mountain in Daniel 2 was God's assurance that the kingdom of God would one day prevade the entire earth. The question then becomes, was this kingdom of God to be a reinassance of the Second Jewish Commonwealth, or would it be Christianity itself?
The Thousand Years Expire!
As the thousand years expire, Satan is released from his prison (verse 7), connecting back to verses 1, 2, and 3. In verse 8, Satan deceives the nations, gathering them for battle, with their number likened to the sand of the sea. The reference to "number as the sand of the sea" is significant, echoing throughout the Bible from Genesis to Hebrews. This raises questions: Does Revelation 20 suggest that Jesus will rule from Jerusalem with a Third Temple, restored animal sacrifices, and a reinstated Levitical Priesthood? Should the teachings of the Apostle Paul in 2 Corinthians 3:6-18 and 5:1-4, along with the Supersessionist theology of the Hebrew Writer, impact our understanding of this period? If Jesus is visible during this thousand-year reign, why would the vast majority of the world rebel against Him after Satan's release?
Satan's Release from Prison:
In Antiquity or Futurity?
already happened in Revelation 11 and 12, in chapters 13 and 14, and in chapters 15 and 16 and 17, 18, and 19. After what was said and done in Revelation 19:21 (the beast and the false prophet are cast into the lake of fire). The period of Satan's binding can be seen as temporary, intercalary period. Can we find a major social event or rebellion in the remaining 27 years of the first century that could be considered 'Satan's come back'? If we did we must first focus our search on what happens where it was happening in the first place: In Jewry. And this means we continue to look at Jewish history and we do not see any events in Jewish history except one: the Council of Jebneh where the New Testament and the books of the Maccabees are rejected from any consideration to be in the Jewish canon and also there seems to be a keen awareness that the Maccabee model served as a dangerous impetus to oppose Rome and a conscieous decision was made to prevent a repeat of what happened in the A.D.66-70 imbroglio. New event, however, strike hard and fast in A.D.116 and continue to 117 claims hundreds of thousands lives and prove that the Jewish spirit is very much alive, crackling with sanguine energy, pushing to be released at the slightest provocation. But it only in the third decade of the second-century that a conflict erupts, as could be expected, in the Holy Land, initiated by the Jews rather than the Romans, 
resulting the most massive military buildup the Hebrew people had ever seen.
We must now ask if and when Satan was bound, but also if Satan's release and return is a thing of antiquity or a prophecy of futurity? Before we can do anything else we must establish and reconfirm what we already covered and agreed on.
- The fourth kingdom was Judaea and declined toward a Judaeo-Idumean confederacy that failed in its goals in the A.D.66-70 debacle against the Roman Empire. Judea became the losers and the Romans became the winners, defying long held Jewish hopes and ambitions.
- The time statements and audience relevance notices in the New Testament constitute a meaningful way of understanding and gauging the nearness of the first Christians to oncoming apocalyptic and eschatological events centered around the return of Jesus, inception of the kingdom of God and resurrection, judgment and reward of the righteous and the wicked.
- The Second Temple play a significant role as the base from which the Zealots and their Idumean co-religionist launch their assaults against the pro-Roman moderate Jerusalem Aristocracy. This element was also allied with false prophets who promised to display signs and wonders to provide proof that God would step in an defeat the Romans and give the Jewish people the victory against all foreign forces arrayed against them. But this did not happen and the Second Temple was utterly destroyed down to its foundations, along with Jerusalem.
- Babylon the Great was alternately named the 'holy' city and the place 'where our Lord was crucified,' and 'Sodom and Egypt.' In Revelation chapter 19:1-4 the final durges are heard against her and the paions of praise and anticipation of the marriage supper of the Lamb auger the termination of the beast and the false prophet who helped destroy their own capital city by their own tyrannical and sacreligious outrages.
John observes that the beast and the false prophet met their fate before Satan was bound. However, when Satan is released from his prison (Rev. 20:7), new developments quickly emerge, leading to a large-scale but short-lived war. Details of this war can be found in Ezekiel chapters 38 and 39 and Matthew 12:43-45. Revelation 20:7-8 and the release of Satan is directly connected to the Parable of the Wicked Spirit (Satan's return to the swept and garnished house of Judea) occassions a staggering multitude of gullible participants, individuals who, for one reason or another, believed they had no choice but to accept that circumcision, a Jewish Temple, and animal sacrifices were a way of life that demanded their allegiance, even their blood. But this was a rebellion against what the Gospel stood for in the first century (as the Gospel transcended both Law and nationalism and made no provision for the necessity, continuation or reinassance of the Levitical priesthood). And the identity and vastness of this rebellion is indicated when it is compared to the "sand of the sea," aligns with Romans 9:27 and Hebrews 11:12 where the participants are, without any question the children of Abraham, but (if we follow the logic of Daniel 2:34) chaff of the summer threshing floor and doomed to be lost. If we have understood what
Revelation 20:1 is a new chapter and its contents must follow a logical, linear course into the future (but how far into that future must be assessed after reflection and consideration of all relevant data). In this historic war, the Jews aimed to eliminate the Jewish Church, styled in the book of Revelation as 'the Camp of the Saints.' Gog and Magog seek to destroy the camp of the saints but their one ambition is to establish a "Place" (a Third Temple) in Jerusalem. While debates continue on whether Bar Kokhba successfully built this Temple, his actions indicate that such a temple (or the equivalent of one) probably existed, albeit temporarily. However, regardless of its existence, any new Temple or temporary tabernacle would be unacceptable in God's eyes, as stated in Isaiah 66:1-5. The Jews experienced unjustifiable losses, leading to their shame and the confirmation of faith among Christians in Jesus. As for seemingly exaggerated casualty figures, they can be found in the Babylonian Talmud Gittim 57b.25
Summary of the Historical Context
This section delves into the events that followed the destruction of Jerusalem, including the collapse of Diaspora communities, further Jewish revolts, and the rise of Bar Kokhba. These events unfolded over several decades, resulting in significant loss of life and upheaval.
The ambition of Zealot Massacres Towards the end of Emperor Trajan's reign, Zealot activism caused chaos in the Roman world. The Diaspora community suffered due to Roman retaliation. However, tensions continued as Jews eagerly anticipated the "Year of Remission." In A.D. 131, Jewish hopes were sky high, but little more than four years they were cast down to the depths of oblivion by the Son fo God himself and this essay posits that this period fits well with the Great White Throne Judgment and the end of Revelation chapter 20. We conclude this essay by summerizing five key aspects that converge to provide a holistic understanding that questions the basic eschatological assumptions of the Four Views:
- The four kingdoms and the fourth kingdom of Bible prophecy.
- Babylon the Great City as unequivocally first century Jerusalem.
- Time statements, audience relevance, and the New Testament's timeframe.
- The significance of the Second Temple.
- The identity and role of Gog and Magog. The consummation of the first heaven and earth and the dawn of the new heavens and earth.
In our intramural discussions is it possible for Christians to venture outside of the box of the Four Views and think more daringly about the possibilities of interpretation that the New Testament generously affords? I believe it is! Through these and similar studies Christians have an opportunity to approach the Four Views from the perspective and critique of a first and second century viewpoint, a viewpoint that suggests that we could reconnect, on a very basic level, to the fundamental, central, and essential eschatological beliefs of the first Christians.
Endnotes
1 Jewish and Roman persecutions against Christians were a major distraction for the churches for basically the first three hundred years of Christianity’s existence so it should come as no surprise that doctrinal development took a serious turn at the same time as the legalization was handed down by Roman authorities.
2 Saint Augustine of Hippo, an area of the North African province of Numidia, was a prolific writer and is credited with developing the Amillennial theory of eschatology.
3 Elements of historicism appear in the writings of French essayist Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) and Italian philosopher G. B. Vico (1668–1744), and became more fully developed with the dialectic of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), influential in 19th-century Europe. Source: Wikipedia.
4 Johannes Coccejus is credited with developing the Postmillennial theory of Bible eschatology in the 17th century. See: Postmillennialism—Its Historical Development.
5 Margaret MacDonald of Great Britain is given credit for having visions around 1840 and she and Nelson Darby are held responsible for the Dispensational dogma which only in the earliest 20th century came to dominate American Christian interpretations of Bible prophecy. See: Margaret MacDonald, Visionary.
6 Each Christian should become throroughly acquianted with King Nebuchadnezzar’s dream, Daniel’s interpretation of it and how motifs in the New Testament directly allude to it.
7 Daniel’s Night vision is also a passage with which God’s people should be comfortable about and able to identify where allusions to it appear in the New Testament, see, e.g., Matthew 8:11-12, 10:22-23, and 26:64.
8 The New Testament direct alludes that Jerusalem was the capital of the fourth kingdom of Bible prophecy in both the Gospels and the Book of Revelation.
9 Aside from the varying dates of significant changes in the Roman government and its eventual move to Constantinople on 11 May 330 A.D. it still fails to yield anything that corresponds to the judgments against the fourth kingdom related in Daniel 2, 7, 9 or Revelation 13, 17, or 19.
10 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoacer.
11 The assassination of the last rightful Hasmonean king, Mattityahu II Antigonus in the 126th year of the Hasmonean principality happened on the 185th Olympiad and is record in Antiquities of the Jews 15.16.4:487-491.
12 Wars of the Jews 2.20.156-4:568.
13 These other major world civilizations existed side by side with the four kingdoms through which the Jews took passage, including the fourth kingdom, which was their own..
14 Tacitus Histories 5,13.
15
16 Note on completion of the Second Temple and how the priests starved afterward. FIND IT.
17 Wars of the Jews 2.20.1:556-3:568.
18 Archaeology in the World of Herod, Jesus and Paul, Ref. p.101.
19 Wars of the Jews 5.6.3:269-274.
19 SEE WARS 2.14.1:271-276!
20 Martin Hengel on the Vehmet Courts and the barbaric brutality and murder of the innocent.
21 2 Thessalonians 2.
22 Incomprehensible atrocities and bloodshed in the Second Temple (Wars of the Jews )
23 Where I found the definition of indictment.
24 THE SON COMETH!
25 Kenneth L. Gentry, Jr. Before Jerusalem Fell, p. 149.
26 The Seven Hills of Jerusalem.
27 Wars of the Jews 5.6.1:256.
28 Wars of the Jews 5.1.1:1-4.
“29 A.D.: According to Josephus, Antipas imprisoned and executed John the Baptist within the fortified walls of Machaerus, and the Gospels of Mark and Matthew give detailed descriptions on the circumstances of the imprisonment and the execution. During the confinement of John the Baptist, there was a message-exchange through his disciples between himself and Jesus in Galilee.” “71/72 A.D.: After the destruction of Jerusalem, the Romans—for the third time—conquered Machaerus by order of Emperor Vespasian through the Legion X Fretensis, under the commandership of Lucilius Bassus, the Roman Legatus of Judea Province. The fortress of Machaerus was destroyed and vanished into the oblivion of human history.” Source: Machearus Through the Ages. See also, e.g., Wars of the Jews 4.9.11:566-12:577.
30 Ananias and Jesus slain because it was the fate of the city to be destroyed because of its wickedness.
31 The Roman mop-up notes here.
32 Mop up
33 Mopup
34 The Roman general, Lusius Quiētus, subdued major revolts by Diasporic Jews in Cyrene (Cyrenaica), Cyprus, Mesopotamia, and Egypt resulted in the ransacking of towns and the slaughter of Roman citizens and others by the Jewish rebels, a conflict now known as the Kitos War, after a simplified version of Quietus’s name. Source: Wikipedia
35 Isaiah describes the wicked as the churning sea, Isaiah 57:20-21.
36? Wars of the Jews 4.5.2:323-325..
37 The "little town" was later laid to waste by Vespasian's officer Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis.[65] Josephus wrote that he "slew all he found there, young and old, and burnt down the town. Source, Wiki.
38?? “During the course of the rebellion, the site was occupied by Idumean Jews from “Daroma” (Idumea), and also, apparently, some zealots or “Sicarii,” allied to Simon Bar Giora” (The Jewish Wars, IV, pp. 514-537). Source: http://herodium.org/history-and-archology/history/the-site-during-the-period-of-the-great-revolt-against-rome/
39?? Wars of the Jews 5.1.1:1-4.
40??
41?? Wiki. Last Strongholds.
42??(Wars of the Jews 2.17.3:414 and 3.8.3:383).
43?? Cassius Dio on Bar Kokhba.
44?? Inflicted heavy losses on Roman population reaching astronomical casualties said to exceed 450,000 people.
45?? Emperor Hadrian destroyed the foundations of Jerusalem and founds a new Roman city, Aelia Capitolina, the Mishnah (Ta’anit 4, 6) also states that the establishment of Aelia Capitolina, represented by the plowing of the pomerium, occurred after the Bar Kokhba Revolt and the downfall of Betar).
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